Question: In the expression “If hybrid cars become popular, then the price of gasoline will drop,” the statement “Hybrid cars become popular” is called the:
Answer Options:
a. Consequent.
b. Premise.
c. Antecedent.
d. Explanans.
e. Conditional.
Answer: c. Antecedent.
Question: An argument that proceeds from knowledge of an effect to a claim about a cause is:
Answer Options:
a. A sound argument.
b. A strong argument.
c. An uncogent argument.
d. An inductive argument.
e. A deductive argument.
Answer: d. An inductive argument.
Question: An argument that applies a scientific law to a specific case is usually:
Answer Options:
a. A cogent argument.
b. An inductive argument.
c. A strong argument.
d. An invalid argument.
e. A deductive argument.
Answer: e. A deductive argument.
Question: If a deductive argument has all false premises and a true conclusion, then we know:
Answer Options:
a. The argument is invalid.
b. The argument is valid.
c. Nothing as such about the argument’s validity.
d. The argument is sound.
e. The argument is uncogent.
Answer: c. Nothing as such about the argument’s validity.
Question: Which of the following is a necessary condition for graduating from college?
Answer Options:
a. Fulfilling the course requirements.
b. Attending the graduation ceremony.
c. Receiving gifts from family members.
d. Showing up for all your classes.
e. Wearing a cap and gown.
Answer: a. Fulfilling the course requirements.
Question: Which of the following is a sufficient condition for winning an election?
Answer Options:
a. Appealing to the voters.
b. Getting more than half the votes.
c. Staying alive until all the votes are counted.
d. Running an honest campaign.
e. Having adequate funding.
Answer: b. Getting more than half the votes.
Problem 1 (Part A):
Question: 376
No brass lanterns are fixtures that glitter because all crystal chandeliers are fixtures that glitter, and no brass lanterns are crystal chandeliers. Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
Answer Options:
a. No B are F. All C are F. No B are C.
b. No B are F. No B are C. All C are F.
c. No B are C. All C are F. No B are F.
d. All F are C. No B are B. No B are F.
e. All C are F. No B are C. No B are F.
Correct Answer:
e. All C are F. No B are C. No B are F.
Problem 1 (Part B):
Question: 377
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
Answer Options:
a. C = cats, F = fish, B = animals.
b. C = dogs, F = fish, B = mammals.
c. C = cats, F = animals, B = dogs.
d. C = animals, F = mammals, B = fish.
e. C = dogs, F = mammals, B = animals.
Correct Answer:
c. C = cats, F = animals, B = dogs.
Problem 2 (Part A):
Question:378
If music pirating continues, then property rights are ignored. Thus, if property rights are ignored, then recording artists will be cheated, because if music pirating continues, then recording artists will be cheated. Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
Answer Options:
a. If M then P. If P then R. If M then R.
b. If P then R. If M then P. If M then R.
c. If R then M. If P then M. If P then R.
d. If M then P. If M then R. If M then P.
e. If R then P. If M then P. If M then R.
Correct Answer:
a. If M then P. If P then R. If M then R.
Problem 2 (Part B):
Question:379
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
Answer Options:
a. M = Neil Armstrong has walked on the moon, P = Neil Armstrong is a human, R = Neil Armstrong is an astronaut.
b. M = Paris Hilton has walked on the moon, P = Paris Hilton is a human, R = Paris Hilton is an astronaut.
c. M = Britney Spears makes CDs, P = Britney Spears is a singer, R = Britney Spears is a human.
d. M = Nicole Kidman programs computers, P = Ben Affleck sells fertilizer, R = Jennifer Lopez raises elephants.
e. M = Brad Pitt stars in movies, P = Brad Pitt is an actor, R = Brad Pitt is a human.
Correct Answer:
Part A: d
Part B: b
Problem 3 (Part A):
Question:380
Some playoff games are heartbreakers, since all playoff games are either heartbreakers or occasions for glee. Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
Answer Options:
a. All P are either H or O. Some P are H.
b. Some P are H. All P are either H or O.
c. All P are either H or O. Some PG are H.
d. All P are H. Some P are either H or O.
e. All PG are either H or O. Some G are H.
Correct Answer:
a. All P are either H or O. Some P are H.
Problem 3 (Part B):
Question:381
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
Answer Options:
a. P = fish, H = animals, O = mammals.
b. P = dogs, H = cats, O = fish.
c. P = dogs, H = fish, O = animals.
d. P = male, G = dogs, H = animals, O = fish.
e. P = women, H = humans, O = doctors.
Correct Answer:
Part A: a
Part B: c
Question: Incandescent light bulbs eventually burn out because the high temperature of the filament causes tungsten atoms to fly off and collect on the inside of the bulb’s glass. This loss of tungsten is slowed, but not prevented, by introducing argon inside the bulb’s envelope. As more and more atoms are lost, the filament disintegrates. When this happens, no electricity flows through the filament, and the bulb produces no light.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Incandescent light bulbs eventually burn out.
b. Argument; conclusion: The high temperature of the filament … the bulb’s glass.
c. Argument; conclusion: The filament disintegrates.
d. Argument; conclusion: When this happens … the bulb produces no light.
e. Nonargument.
Answer: e. Nonargument.
Question: The consequences of violence for children are very often grave and damaging. Violence may result in greater susceptibility to lifelong social, emotional, and cognitive impairments. Related mental health and social problems include anxiety and depressive disorders, hallucinations, impaired work performance, memory disturbances, and aggressive behavior. Early exposure to violence is also associated with later lung, heart, and liver disease, fetal death during pregnancy, and suicide attempts.
— Paulo Sergio Pinheiro, Report of the Independent Expert on Violence Against Children
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Violence may result … cognitive impairments.
b. Argument; conclusion: Related mental health … aggressive behavior.
c. Argument; conclusion: Early exposure to violence … suicide attempts.
d. Argument; conclusion: The consequences of violence … grave and damaging.
e. Nonargument.
Answer: d. Argument; conclusion: The consequences of violence … grave and damaging.
Question: Finding an identity as a Latino is a tricky issue in the United States because the pressure to assimilate is being repressed by the pressure to retain your roots. If you are deemed too assimilated into American culture, you are branded a “gringo” by your peers or even a turncoat to your blood and country. If you shun all American culture, you are branded as a freeloading malcontent who would be better off going back to where he came from. It is a lose-lose situation.
— Mario Feirro, Letter to the Editor
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Finding an identity … in the United States.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: If you are deemed too assimilated … blood and country.
d. Argument; conclusion: If you shun all American culture … where he came from.
e. Argument; conclusion: The pressure to assimilate … retain your roots.
Answer: a. Argument; conclusion: Finding an identity … in the United States.
Question: A crystal is a form of mineral that has grown in an orderly and symmetrical manner. When broken, it naturally divides into a common shape based on its structure. Crystals are the result of the atomic arrangement of atoms as they grow in a shape that can be duplicated many times. Crystals are made up of molecules that fit neatly together in an orderly way. All crystals of the same material have the same shape.
— Edward F. Albin, Earth Science Made Easy
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Crystals are the result … duplicated many times.
b. Argument; conclusion: When broken, it naturally divides … its structure.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: All crystals of the same material have the same shape.
e. Argument; conclusion: A crystal is a form of mineral … symmetrical manner.
Answer: c. Nonargument.
Question: Karl Marx believed that the key to human history was class conflict. According to Marxist theory, the bourgeoisie are locked in inevitable conflict with the proletariat. This bitter struggle can end only when members of the working class unite in revolution and throw off their chains of bondage. The result will be a classless society, one free of exploitation, in which everyone will work according to their abilities and receive according to their needs.
— James M. Henslin, Essentials of Sociology
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: According to Marxist theory … with the proletariat.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: This bitter struggle can end … their chains of bondage.
d. Argument; conclusion: The result will be a classless society … to their needs.
e. Argument; conclusion: Karl Marx believed … class conflict.
Answer: b. Nonargument.
Question: In general, whoever produces or distributes child pornography is subject to prosecution. But that rule is not absolute. For example, in 2002 the Supreme Court ruled that computer-generated child porn is protected under the First Amendment. The Court reasoned that such pornography was permissible because no real children are exploited.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: In general, whoever produces … subject to prosecution.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: That rule is not absolute.
d. Argument; conclusion: The Court reasoned … no real children are exploited.
e. Argument; conclusion: In 2002 the Supreme Court … First Amendment.
Answer: c. Argument; conclusion: That rule is not absolute.
Question: The three main parts of a neuron are the dendrites, cell body, and axon. The dendrites receive information from other neurons and pass it along to the cell body. The cell body decides whether the information should be passed on to other neurons. If it decides it should, then it does so by means of an electrical impulse that travels down the axon. When the impulse reaches the axon terminals, it triggers chemical communication with other neurons.
— Richard Griggs, Psychology: A Concise Introduction
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The cell body decides … to other neurons.
b. Argument; conclusion: The three main parts … and axon.
c. Argument; conclusion: The dendrites … along to the cell body.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: When the impulse reaches … with other neurons.
Answer: d. Nonargument.
Question: Computerized scanning equipment has revolutionized the study of brain diseases and injuries. At best, conventional X-rays produce only shadowy images of the brain. Computed tomographic (CT) scanning is a specialized type of X-ray that does a much better job of making the brain visible. In a CT scan, X-ray information is collected by a computer and formed into an image of the brain. A CT scan can reveal the effects of strokes, injuries, tumors, and other brain disorders.
— Dennis Coon and John O. Mitterer, Psychology: A Journey
Answer Options:
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: A CT scan can reveal … other brain disorders.
c. Argument; conclusion: At best, conventional X-rays … images of the brain.
d. Argument; conclusion: Computed tomographic (CT) scanning … brain visible.
e. Argument; conclusion: Computerized scanning equipment … and injuries.
Answer: e. Argument; conclusion: Computerized scanning equipment … and injuries.
Question: If you go to foreign films, if you go to documentaries, if you go to independent films, if you go to good films, you will become a better person because you will understand human nature better. Movies record human nature in a better way than any other art form. That’s for sure.
— Roger Ebert
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: That’s for sure.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: If you go to foreign films … a better person.
d. Argument; conclusion: You will understand human nature better.
e. Argument; conclusion: Movies record human nature … any other art form.
Answer: c. Argument; conclusion: If you go to foreign films … a better person.
Question: If people buy cars that are more efficient, replace large appliances with energy-efficient ones, unplug unused freezers and refrigerators, replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent models, and plant trees on private property and public land, then millions of tons of heat-trapping gasses will be kept out of the atmosphere, the current level of these gasses will be reduced, and the catastrophic consequences of global warming will be averted.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: People buy cars … private property and public land.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: Millions of tons … out of the atmosphere.
d. Argument; conclusion: The catastrophic consequences … will be averted.
e. Argument; conclusion: Millions of tons of heat-trapping gasses … will be averted.
Answer: b. Nonargument.
Question: The parallel concepts of the element and the atom constitute the very foundations of chemical science. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler form capable of an independent existence as observable matter. As such, the concept of the element is a macroscopic one that relates to the world that we can observe with our senses. The atom is the microscopic realization of this concept. That is, it is the actual physical particle that is unique to each chemical element.
— Stephen Lower, Chem 1 Virtual Textbook
Answer Options:
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: The parallel concepts … foundations of chemical science.
c. Argument; conclusion: As such, the concept of the element … realization of this concept.
d. Argument; conclusion: It is the actual physical particle … each chemical element.
e. Argument; conclusion: An element is a substance … as observable matter.
Answer: a. Nonargument.
Question: Earth science can be divided into four branches. Geology is the study of rocks, minerals, and forces that wear down the surface and build mountains. Meteorology covers weather, climate, and the atmosphere. Astronomy investigates planets, stars, and other features outside the atmosphere. The study of the oceans is called oceanography.
— Scott Ryan, Earth Science
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The study of the oceans is called oceanography.
b. Argument; conclusion: Geology is the study of rocks … build mountains.
c. Argument; conclusion: Meteorology covers weather, climate, and the atmosphere.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Earth science can be divided into four branches.
Answer: d. Nonargument.
Question: Apple seeds and cherry pits are poisonous because they contain cyanide compounds. Your body can detoxify small quantities of these compounds, but larger doses can lead to difficulty in breathing, increased blood pressure and heart rate, and kidney failure. Reactions can include coma, convulsions, and death from respiratory arrest.
— Anne Marie Helmenstine, Your Guide to Chemistry
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Apple seeds and cherry pits are poisonous.
b. Argument; conclusion: Reactions can include … respiratory arrest.
c. Argument; conclusion: They contain cyanide compounds.
d. Argument; conclusion: Your body can detoxify … kidney failure.
e. Nonargument.
Answer: a. Argument; conclusion: Apple seeds and cherry pits are poisonous.
Question: The power that modifies, influences, and controls climate originates with the sun. The amount of sunlight striking a particular area of the globe determines the level of warmth and ultimately the movement of air and the amount of precipitation. Because the earth is a globe that rotates about a tilted axis, the amount of sunlight striking the earth varies by region and time.
— Gary S. Moore, Living with the Earth, 3rd ed.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The power that modifies … originates with the sun.
b. Argument; conclusion: The earth is a globe that rotates about a tilted axis.
c. Argument; conclusion: The amount of sunlight … varies by region and time.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: The amount of sunlight … the amount of precipitation.
Answer: c. Argument; conclusion: The amount of sunlight … varies by region and time.
Question: Native peoples, completely dependent on Mother Earth for everything in their lives, worshipped the Earth as a nurturing goddess that provided for all their needs. From the soil came plants and growing things that provided clothing and food. From the rivers and seas came fish and shellfish for food, trade articles, and tools. From the air came rain, snow, and wind to grow crops and alter the seasons. The Earth was never stagnant or dull, but always provided for those in her care.
— Linda Williams, Earth Science Demystified
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: From the rivers and seas … and tools.
b. Argument; conclusion: From the soil came plants … clothing and food.
c. Argument; conclusion: The Earth was never stagnant … in her care.
d. Argument; conclusion: Native peoples … all their needs.
e. Nonargument.
Answer: e. Nonargument.
Question: Water is abundant over most of the earth’s surface, and within the temperature range usually encountered there, it is liquid. Water also is a powerful solvent. Consequently, water is an excellent medium for the chemical processes of living systems. It is hard to imagine life having any other basis than water.
— Robert E. Ricklefs, The Economy of Nature, 5th ed.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: It is hard to imagine life having any other basis than water.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: Water is abundant … it is liquid.
d. Argument; conclusion: Water is an excellent medium … living systems.
e. Argument; conclusion: Water also is a powerful solvent.
Answer: d. Argument; conclusion: Water is an excellent medium … living systems.