Question: An argument whose conclusion rests on some geometrical procedure is:
Answer: Deductive, valid.
Question: An argument whose conclusion rests on a similarity between two things or situations is:
Answer Options:
a. A valid argument.
b. An inductive argument.
c. A sound argument.
d. A cogent argument.
e. A deductive argument.
Answer: b. An inductive argument.
Question: In the expression “The moon sends forth light because it reflects light from the sun,” the statement “The moon sends forth light” is called the:
Answer Options:
a. Explanandum.
b. Consequent.
c. Explanans.
d. Conclusion.
e. Premise.
Answer: a. Explanandum.
Question: In the expression “If a nation engages in torture, then it loses moral authority in the world community,” the statement “A nation engages in torture” is called the:
Answer Options:
a. Conclusion.
b. Consequent.
c. Conditional.
d. Explanandum.
e. Antecedent.
Answer: e. Antecedent.
Question: Which of the following is a sufficient condition for committing a crime?
Answer Options:
a. Having a good lawyer.
b. Going to jail.
c. Avoiding the police.
d. Robbing a bank.
e. Signing a confession.
Answer: d. Robbing a bank.
Question: Which of the following is a necessary condition for playing baseball?
Answer Options:
a. Being able to run the bases faster than the other players.
b. Being able to catch a fly ball.
c. Having a bat.
d. Being able to steal a base.
e. Having an umpire.
Answer: c. Having a bat.
Question: Authoritarian states are characterized by strong central governments that fairly stringently limit the range of political activity. More often than not, they are one-party states, which means that only one party, that which supports the government, is allowed to engage in political activity. Free discussion and association are strictly curtailed in these systems. Anyone who might dare to criticize the government or to express ideas that are not in conformity with its policies can be severely punished, even by death.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: More often than not … engage in political activity.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: Authoritarian states … limit the range of political activity.
d. Argument; conclusion: Anyone who might dare to criticize … even by death.
e. Argument; conclusion: Free discussion and association … in these systems.
Answer: b. Nonargument.
Question: Prior to their extinction, Neanderthals had been widespread in Europe for 100,000 years. Then 50,000 years ago, modern humans moved into Europe from Africa. Twenty-six thousand years after that, the last Neanderthal died. At one time it was thought that the Neanderthals were killed by climate change, but this theory has now been discounted. So why did the Neanderthals perish? Probably they were killed by humans.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Then 50,000 years ago … Europe from Africa.
b. Argument; conclusion: At one time it was thought … now been discounted.
c. Argument; conclusion: Prior to their extinction … 100,000 years.
d. Nonargument. Twenty-six thousand years after that the last Neanderthal died.
e. Argument; conclusion: Probably they were killed by the humans.
Answer: e. Argument; conclusion: Probably they were killed by the humans.
Question: Hair turns color when we age because the follicles at the base of the hair shaft cease to produce melanin. Melanin is a chemical that gives the hair shaft its color (black, brown, blond, red, and all shades in between). The darkness or lightness of your hair depends on how much melanin each strand contains. With age, the cells in the follicle that produce melanin die off. As they do so, that hair strand will become silver, grey, or white, as it grows.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The follicles … cease to produce melanin.
b. Argument; conclusion: Hair turns color when we age.
c. Argument; conclusion: With age, the cells in the follicle … die off.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: The darkness or lightness … each strand contains.
Answer: d. Nonargument.
Question: Evolution as a process that has always gone on in the history of the earth can be doubted only by those who are ignorant of the evidence or are resistant to evidence, owing to emotional blocks or to plain bigotry. By contrast, the mechanisms that bring evolution about certainly need study and clarification. There are no alternatives to evolution as history that can withstand critical examination. Yet we are constantly learning new and important facts about evolutionary mechanisms.
Answer Options:
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: By contrast, the mechanisms … study and clarification.
c. Argument; conclusion: Yet we are constantly … evolutionary mechanisms.
d. Argument; conclusion: Evolution as a process … blocks or to plain bigotry.
e. Argument; conclusion: There are no alternatives … critical examination.
Answer: a. Nonargument.
Question: Scientists have recently shown that heaps of intact DNA from the extinct woolly mammoth are retrievable from the animals’ fur. A great deal of that fur is readily available in natural history museums. Such amounts of DNA make it possible to piece together the entire mammoth genome. Hence, we can expect to see mammoth clones in the not too distant future.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: A great deal of that fur … natural history museums.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: Scientists have recently shown … animals’ fur.
d. Argument; conclusion: We can expect to see … in the not too distant future.
e. Argument; conclusion: Such amounts of DNA … the entire mammoth genome.
Answer: d. Argument; conclusion: We can expect to see … in the not too distant future.
Question: The loss of arctic ice is accelerating as a result of a form of positive feedback. As arctic ice melts, the arctic icecap reflects fewer rays from the sun. When this happens, more rays are absorbed by the surrounding ocean, which increases its temperature. As the temperature of the ocean rises, more arctic ice melts.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: When this happens … which increases its temperature.
b. Argument; conclusion: As the temperature of the ocean rises … ice melts.
c. Argument; conclusion: The loss of arctic ice … positive feedback.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: As arctic ice melts … fewer rays from the sun.
Answer: c. Argument; conclusion: The loss of arctic ice … positive feedback.
Question: If its ion engine operates as planned, its huge solar panel remains deployed and undamaged, and its xenon energy source is not exhausted, then the Dawn spacecraft will reach both Vesta and Ceres (large asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter), and scientists will gather information about the formation of planets, whether Ceres has a buried ocean of fresh water, and whether vestiges of life lurk beneath its icy surface.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Its ion engine operates … not exhausted.
b. Argument; conclusion: The Dawn spacecraft … Mars and Jupiter.
c. Argument; conclusion: The Dawn spacecraft … beneath its icy surface.
d. Argument; conclusion: Scientists will gather information … formation of planets.
e. Nonargument.
Answer: e. Nonargument.
Question: To focus on the performance of the stock market is to zero in on an economic indicator that can do well even as the country does poorly. In 2006, for instance, the Dow Jones industrial average hit highs. According to the just released census data, however, median earnings fell one percent, and millions more Americans entered the ranks of the uninsured. Indeed, from 2000 to 2007 the S&P 500 gained more than 500 points. Meanwhile, the median household income fell by more than $900.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: According to the just released … ranks of the uninsured.
b. Argument; conclusion: To focus on the performance … the country does poorly.
Answer: b. Argument; conclusion: To focus on the performance … the country does poorly.
Question: The earth is divided into the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust is the solid portion on which we stand. The mantle is a plastic but solid material under the crust that can flow and move about. And finally, the core is the innermost part of the earth made of solid and molten iron.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The mantle … flow and move about.
b. Argument; conclusion: The crust is the solid portion on which we stand.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: The core is the innermost part … molten iron.
e. Argument; conclusion: The earth is divided into the crust, the mantle, and the core.
Answer: c. Nonargument.
Question: The relationship between two measurable factors can be represented by a graph. If both values increase, they are considered to have a direct relationship. For example, the more you work, the more money you make. If one value increases while the other decreases, they have an inverse relationship. For example, the more you work on your golf swing, the lower your score will be.
Answer Options:
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: If one value increases … an inverse relationship.
c. Argument; conclusion: The relationship … can be represented by a graph.
d. Argument; conclusion: For example, the more you work … money you make.
e. Argument; conclusion: If both values increase … direct relationship.
Answer: a. Nonargument.
Question: Scientists may be on the verge of creating life in a test tube. Recently, scientists have used computers to synthesize a highly complex loop of DNA. When this loop was inserted into an empty bacterial cell, the cell began to self-replicate. And self-replication is an essential feature of life.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: When this loop was inserted … began to self-replicate.
b. Argument; conclusion: Recently, scientists have used computers … loop of DNA.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Scientists may be on the verge … life in a test tube.
e. Argument; conclusion: And self-replication is an essential feature of life.
Answer: d. Argument; conclusion: Scientists may be on the verge … life in a test tube.
Question: Good intentions aside, there are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation. Hydrofluosilicic acid, the industrial waste product used in municipal water systems, is contaminated with arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals. There are significant increases in lead levels in children who drink fluoridated water. A 2006 Harvard study found a fivefold to sevenfold increase in bone cancer in exposed young men. Sadly, the youngest children are the most susceptible.
Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Hydrofluosilicic acid … and other heavy metals.
b. Argument; conclusion: Sadly, the youngest children are the most susceptible.
c. Argument; conclusion: There are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation.
d. Argument; conclusion: There are significant increases … fluoridated water.
e. Nonargument.
Answer: c. Argument; conclusion: There are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation.