Question: In the expression “If politicians engage in cover-ups, then they risk being prosecuted as criminals,” the statement “They risk being prosecuted as criminals” is called the:

Answer Options:
a. Conclusion.
b. Conditional.
c. Antecedent.
d. Explanandum.
e. Consequent.

Answer: e. Consequent.

Question: Any argument in which the conclusion actually follows with strict necessity from the premises is:

Answer Options:
a. Inductive and valid.
b. Deductive and sound.
c. Deductive and invalid.
d. Deductive and valid.
e. Inductive and cogent.

Answer: d. Deductive and valid.

Question: If an inductive argument has all false premises and a probably false conclusion, then we know:

Answer Options:
a. The argument is strong.
b. Nothing, as such, about the argument’s strength.
c. The argument is cogent.
d. The argument is valid.
e. The argument is sound.

Answer: b. Nothing, as such, about the argument’s strength.

Question: Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a parent?

Answer Options:
a. Having sex.
b. Getting pregnant.
c. Giving birth.

Answer: c. Giving birth.

Question: Which of the following is a necessary condition for making a cell phone call?

Answer Options:
a. Speaking clearly.
b. Turning the phone on.
c. Calling a friend.
d. Selecting a ring tone.
e. Inputting often used numbers.

Answer: b. Turning the phone on.

Question: Which of the following sentences is a statement?

Answer Options:
a. Lady Gaga is a brain surgeon.
b. Let’s go to a restaurant tonight.
c. I suggest that you take a vacation.
d. Do you know Senator Garson?
e. Stop beating that drum this very minute.

Answer: a. Lady Gaga is a brain surgeon.

Problem 1 (Part A):
Question:425
All evangelicals are political conservatives, so some fundamentalists are evangelicals, since some fundamentalists are political conservatives.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?

Answer Options:
a. All P are E. Some P are E. Some F are E.
b. Some F are P. Some F are E. All F are P.
c. All E are H. Some F are E.
d. All E are P. Some F are P. Some F are E.
e. Some F are P. Some F are E. All P are E.

Correct Answer:
d. All E are P. Some F are P. Some F are E.

Problem 1 (Part B):
Question:426
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?

Answer Options:
a. E = fish, P = mammals, F = animals.
b. E = dogs, P = animals, F = mammals.
c. E = dogs, P = animals, F = cats.
d. E = birds, P = dogs, F = fish.
e. E = animals, P = cats, F = fish.

Correct Answer:
Part A: d
Part B: c

Problem 2 (Part A):
Question:427
If shopping malls utilize video cameras, then the privacy of shoppers is invaded. Consequently, shopping malls utilize video cameras, because the privacy of shoppers is invaded.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?

Answer Options:
a. If S then P. P S
b. P S If S then P.
c. If S then P. S P
d. If P then S. P S
e. If P then S. S P

Correct Answer:
a. If S then P. P S

Problem 2 (Part B):
Question:428
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?

Answer Options:
a. M = Angelina Jolie stars in movies, P = Angelina Jolie is an actress.
b. M = George Washington was beheaded, P = George Washington is dead.
c. M = Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, P = Abraham Lincoln is dead.
d. M = Tom Smith was killed in a plane crash, P = Tom Smith is dead.
e. M = George Washington is dead, P = George Washington was beheaded.

Correct Answer:
Part A: a
Part B: b

Problem 3 (Part A):
Question:429
Some movies are long comedies, for some movies are long, and some movies are comedies.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?

Answer Options:
a. Some M are L. Some M are C. Some M are LC.
b. Some M are LC. Some M are L. Some M are C.
c. Some M are C. Some M are LC. Some M are L.
d. Some LC are M. Some M are L. Some M are C.
e. Some M are L. Some M are C. Some LC are C.

Correct Answer:
a. Some M are L. Some M are C. Some M are LC.

Problem 3 (Part B):
Question:430
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?

Answer Options:
a. M = birds, L = yellow, C = canaries.
b. M = vegetables, L = green, C = peppers.
c. M = animals, L = green, C = elephants.
d. M = parrots, L = green, C = animals.
e. M = elephants, L = red, C = cats.

Correct Answer:
Part A: a
Part B: c

Question: For a long time, Haydn’s music was regarded as genial and lively, and much of its depth, wit, and brilliance went unnoticed. This was because only a few of his compositions were performed regularly at concerts. Nowadays, however, much more of Haydn’s music is being performed, and the extraordinary range of his achievement is being recognized.
— Jeffrey Yudkin, Understanding Music, 4th edition

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: For a long time … went unnoticed.
b. Argument; conclusion: Only a few of his compositions … at concerts.
c. Argument; conclusion: Nowadays … being performed.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: The extraordinary range … is being recognized.

Answer: d. Nonargument.

Question: While the topical application of fluoride to children’s teeth can help reduce decay, the addition of fluoride to drinking water is definitely not a good idea. Fluoride in drinking water has caused widespread dental fluorosis (mottled and discolored enamel), it is a cumulative poison, which means that it builds up in bone and tissue, and it has been linked to lower IQ in children and to Alzheimer’s disease in adults.

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The addition of fluoride … not a good idea.
b. Argument; conclusion: Fluoride is a cumulative poison.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: The topical application of fluoride … reduce decay.
e. Argument; conclusion: It has been linked … Alzheimer’s disease in adults.

Answer: a. Argument; conclusion: The addition of fluoride … not a good idea.

Question: The aim of an experiment is not to prove that a hypothesis is correct. Rather, the aim is to demonstrate that it is highly probable that the hypothesis is correct. Researchers ask the question in the following way: “What is the probability that the results I have obtained could have been found by chance alone?” Hence, social psychology, like most other sciences, deals with probabilities rather than absolutes.
— Stephen Worchel, et al., Understanding Social Psychology, 5th edition

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Researchers ask the question … chance alone”
b. Argument; conclusion: Social psychology … probabilities rather than absolutes.
c. Argument; conclusion: Rather, the aim … probable that the hypothesis is correct.
d. Argument; conclusion: The aim of an experiment … the hypothesis is correct.
e. Nonargument.

Answer: b. Argument; conclusion: Social psychology … probabilities rather than absolutes.

Question: If carbon dioxide levels have been rising for years, the polar ice caps are melting, the frequency and intensity of hurricanes is increasing, and the acidity of sea water is rising, then global warming is for real, it’s not just a delusion of leftist thinking, and the nations of the world must unite to address the threat.

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: It’s not just a delusion of leftist thinking.
b. Argument; conclusion: The nations of the world must unite to address the threat.
c. Argument; conclusion: The polar ice caps are melting.
d. Argument; conclusion: Global warming is for real.
e. Nonargument.

Answer: e. Nonargument.

Question: After having a part time job for more than a year, I have gotten used to the fact that the government takes money from me every two weeks to put toward Social Security. It isn’t fair that I should pay for some old person’s rent in Florida. Despite my dislike of the right wing, I find the idea of privatizing appealing. I would much rather keep that money to invest in mutual funds, stocks or my college education.
— Andy Irwin, Letter to the Editor

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: After having a part time job … toward Social Security.
b. Argument; conclusion: Despite my dislike … of privatizing appealing.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: I would much rather keep … or my college education.
e. Argument; conclusion: It isn’t fair … rent in Florida.

Answer: c. Nonargument.

Question: Marketing to consumers via the Internet has many advantages for marketers. It allows products and services to be offered 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. It allows products to be offered globally in an efficient manner. And it is cost efficient, saving the need for stores, paper catalogues, and sales people.
— J. Paul Peter and Jerry C. Olson, Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: It allows products and services … 7 days a week.
b. Argument; conclusion: It allows products to be offered … an efficient manner.
c. Argument; conclusion: It is cost efficient … and sales people.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Marketing to consumers … for marketers.

Answer: e. Argument; conclusion: Marketing to consumers … for marketers.

Question: Hot peppers cause a burning sensation in the mouth because they contain a compound called capsaicin (or any of the related compounds called capsaicinoids). Capsaicin is an alkaline oil that binds to pain receptors in the mucous membrane. In some cases it produces excruciating agony. Drinking something acidic, like lemonade, helps to combat the burning.
— Anne Marie Helmenstine, About.com Guide to Chemistry

Answer Options:
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: Capsaicin is an alkaline oil … mucous membrane.
c. Argument; conclusion: Hot peppers cause a burning sensation in the mouth.
d. Argument; conclusion: Drinking something acidic … combat the burning.
e. Argument; conclusion: They contain a compound … capsaicinoids).

Answer: a. Nonargument.

Question: The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet rays from sunlight before they can reach the surface of our planet and cause damage to humans and other life forms. Any substantial reduction in the amount of this ozone would threaten life as we know it. Consequently, the appearance of a large “hole” in the ozone layer over Antarctica represents a major environmental crisis.
— Colin Baird and Michael Cann, Environmental Chemistry, 3rd edition

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Any substantial reduction … life as we know it.
b. Argument; conclusion: The appearance of a large … environmental crisis.
c. Argument; conclusion: The ozone layer … surface of our planet.
d. Argument; conclusion: The ozone layer … and other life forms.
e. Nonargument.

Answer: b. Argument; conclusion: The appearance of a large … environmental crisis.

Question: Evolution is central to vertebrate biology because it provides a principle that organizes the diversity we see among living vertebrates. Also it helps to fit extinct forms into the context of living species. Classification, initially a process of attaching names to organisms, has become a method of understanding evolution.
— F. Harvey Pough, et al., Vertebrate Life, 7th edition

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: It provides a principle … among living vertebrates.
b. Argument; conclusion: Classification … a method for understanding evolution.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Evolution is central to vertebrate biology.
e. Argument; conclusion: It helps to fit … the context of living species.

Answer: d. Argument; conclusion: Evolution is central to vertebrate biology.

Question: The field of economics is divided into two major branches: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual economic agents and how they interact with each other in markets. Macroeconomics focuses on the overall level of economic activity in a society. It studies such topics as unemployment, inflation, and the rate of economic growth.
— Don E. Waldman, Microeconomics

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Microeconomics studies … with each other in markets.
b. Argument; conclusion: The field of economics … macroeconomics.
c. Argument; conclusion: It studies such topics … rate of economic growth.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Macroeconomics focuses … in a society.

Answer: d. Nonargument.

Question: The exchange of energy between an organism and its surroundings involves the transformation of one form of energy into another. For example, when a leaf produces sugar, it converts solar energy to chemical energy in sugar molecules. When an animal’s muscle cells use sugar as fuel to power movements, they convert chemical energy into kinetic energy. All of the work of cells involves the transformation of chemical energy (which is ordered) into heat, which is the unordered energy of random molecular motion.
— Neil A. Campbell and Jane B. Reece, Biology, 6th edition

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: When an animal’s muscle cells … into kinetic energy.
b. Argument; conclusion: The exchange of energy … form of energy into another.
c. Argument; conclusion: When a leaf produces sugar … in sugar molecules.
d. Argument; conclusion: All of the work of cells … random molecular motion.
e. Nonargument.

Answer: b. Argument; conclusion: The exchange of energy … form of energy into another.

Question: The rate at which a light bulb uses energy (converts electrical energy to light and heat) is usually printed on it—for example, “100 watts.” A watt is a unit of power, which describes the rate of energy use. A power of 1 watt means that 1 joule of energy is being used each second. Hence, for every second that you leave a 100-watt light bulb turned on, you will have to pay the utility company for 100 joules of energy.
— Jeffrey Bennett, et al., The Cosmic Perspective, 3rd edition

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The rate at which a light bulb … printed on it.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: For every second … 100 joules of energy.
d. Argument; conclusion: A power of 1 watt … used each second.
e. Argument; conclusion: A watt is a unit of power … rate of energy use.

Answer: c. Argument; conclusion: For every second … 100 joules of energy.

Question: A misdemeanor is a minor criminal offense punishable by less than one year in prison. Thus, petty theft is a misdemeanor, as is vandalism, trespassing, and prostitution. Some people convicted of misdemeanors are fined. Others are sentenced to probation or community service.

Answer Options:
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: Some people convicted of misdemeanors are fined.
c. Argument; conclusion: Petty theft is a misdemeanor … and prostitution.
d. Argument; conclusion: Others are sentenced to probation or community service.
e. Argument; conclusion: A misdemeanor … one year in prison.

Answer: a. Nonargument.

Question: Capitalism tends to stratify society. Those who are successful are respected and rewarded. Those who are not are abandoned as failures. The net result is that society becomes hierarchical. This is an elitist circumstance thought desirable by people on the right.
— Leon P. Baradat, Political Ideologies

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: Those who are successful are respected and rewarded.
b. Argument; conclusion: The net result is that society becomes hierarchical.
c. Argument; conclusion: This is an elitist circumstance … on the right.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Capitalism tends to stratify society.

Answer: e. Argument; conclusion: Capitalism tends to stratify society.

Question: Health can be conceptualized from medical, functional, or psychological perspectives. The medical model defines health as an absence of illness or disease, while the functional model defines health in terms of individuals’ ability to perform their assigned roles. The psychological model of health emphasizes physical, psychological, and social well-being in measuring the health of individuals.
— Michael P. Soroka and George J. Bryjak, Social Problems: A World at Risk

Answer Options:
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: Health can be conceptualized … perspectives.
c. Argument; conclusion: The functional model … their assigned roles.
d. Argument; conclusion: The medical model … or disease.
e. Argument; conclusion: The psychological model … health of individuals.

Answer: a. Nonargument.

Question: The world economy is controlled by multinational corporations. The majority of them are based in the United States. Their power in the underdeveloped nations perpetuates the dependency of many Third World nations on the United States. Multinationals add to the tensions in Third World countries through arms sales and intervention in the domestic affairs of host countries.
— D. Stanley Eitzen and Maxine Baca Zinn, Social Problems, 9th edition

Answer Options:
a. Argument; conclusion: The world economy … multinational corporations.
b. Argument; conclusion: Their power … on the United States.
c. Argument; conclusion: Multinationals add … affairs of host countries.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: The majority of them are based in the United States.

Answer: d. Nonargument.